We use the past continuous to describe actions that were in progress at a particular time in the past, to create narrative background, to show interrupted actions and to describe simultaneous past actions.

Form	Structure	Example
Affirmative	was / were + verb + -ing	I was working. / They were waiting.
Negative	wasn’t / weren’t + verb + -ing	I wasn’t working. / They weren’t waiting.
Question	Was / Were + subject + verb + -ing	Was she working? / Were they waiting?

Use the past continuous for longer background actions in the past, especially when another shorter action interrupts them. Stative verbs (know, believe, want, see) are not normally used in the continuous.

We use the present perfect continuous to describe actions that started in the past and continue now, or that recently stopped but still have a visible present result. It emphasises activity and duration over completion.

Form	Structure	Example
Affirmative	have / has + been + verb + -ing	I have been working. / She has been waiting.
Negative	haven’t / hasn’t + been + verb + -ing	I haven’t been sleeping well.
Question	Have / Has + subject + been + verb + -ing	Have you been waiting long?

Use the present perfect continuous when the activity or duration matters more than the result. Use the present perfect simple for completed actions or states with stative verbs.

We use the past perfect to show that one past action happened before another past action. It makes the sequence of past events clear.

Form	Structure	Example
Affirmative	had + past participle	I had finished. / She had left.
Negative	hadn’t + past participle	I hadn’t finished. / He hadn’t arrived.
Question	Had + subject + past participle	Had you finished? / Had she left?

Use the past perfect for the earlier action when two events are placed in the past. Form: had + past participle for all persons.

We use the past perfect continuous to describe an activity that continued for a period of time before another point in the past. It emphasises duration and background activity.

Form	Structure	Example
Affirmative	had + been + verb + -ing	I had been working. / She had been waiting.
Negative	hadn’t + been + verb + -ing	I hadn’t been sleeping well.
Question	Had + subject + been + verb + -ing	Had you been waiting long?

Use the past perfect continuous to emphasise duration and background activity before a past moment. It answers «how long had something been happening before that point?»

We use the passive when the action is more important than the person who performs it, or when the doer is unknown, unimportant or obvious from context.

Tense	Passive form	Example
Present Simple	is / are + past participle	English is spoken worldwide.
Past Simple	was / were + past participle	The car was stolen last night.
Present Continuous	is / are being + past participle	The road is being repaired.
Present Perfect	has / have been + past participle	The project has been completed.
Future (will)	will be + past participle	The results will be announced tomorrow.

Passive form: be (correct tense) + past participle. Include by + agent only when the agent is important or new information. Always use the correct past participle — not the past simple form.

We use the second conditional to talk about unreal or imaginary present and future situations — things that are hypothetical, unlikely or contrary to the current facts.

If-clause	Main clause	Example
If + past simple	would + infinitive	If I had more time, I would learn Japanese.
If + were (all persons)	would + infinitive	If I were you, I would apologise.
Negative form	wouldn’t + infinitive	If she knew, she wouldn’t do it.

Use the second conditional for hypothetical present or future meaning. The if-clause uses the past simple (or were for all persons). Never use would in the if-clause.

Relative clauses provide information about a noun. Defining clauses identify which person or thing is meant (no commas). Non-defining clauses add extra information about a noun already identified (commas required).

Pronoun	Use	Example
who / that	People (defining)	The woman who called is my manager.
which / that	Things (defining)	The book that you lent me was excellent.
who	People (non-defining)	My manager, who called earlier, wants to speak to you.
which	Things (non-defining)	This book, which I bought last week, is excellent.
whose	Possession	The man whose car was stolen is very upset.
where	Place	This is the café where we first met.

Defining: no commas, that possible, identifies the noun. Non-defining: commas required, that not used, adds extra information. Which never replaces who for people.

We use these clauses to explain why something happens (reason), what happens as a consequence (result) and what the goal of an action is (purpose).

Connector	Function	Example
because	Reason (+ clause)	We stayed in because it was raining.
so	Result (+ clause)	It was cold, so we stayed inside.
to / in order to	Purpose (+ infinitive)	I left early to avoid traffic.
so that	Purpose (+ clause with modal)	I wrote it down so that I wouldn’t forget.
because of	Reason (+ noun phrase)	We stayed in because of the rain.

Because = reason (followed by a clause). So = result (follows the cause). To / in order to = purpose (followed by infinitive). Because of = reason (followed by a noun phrase, not a clause).

We use contrast clauses to express opposition or unexpected results — when two ideas move in different or opposite directions.

Connector	Use	Example
although / though	Contrast within one sentence	Although it was raining, we went out.
but	Simple contrast (mid-sentence)	He is young, but very responsible.
however	Contrast between sentences (+ comma)	She studied hard. However, she didn’t pass.
even though	Stronger contrast (more surprising)	Even though he was tired, he continued.
despite / in spite of	Contrast (+ noun / -ing form)	Despite the rain, we went out.

Never use although and but together. However links sentences — it cannot link clauses within one sentence. Despite is followed by a noun or -ing form, never a clause with a subject and verb.

We use reported speech to report what someone said without using their exact words. The verb tense typically shifts back one step and time expressions change.

Direct speech	Reported speech
Present Simple: «I work here.»	Past Simple: He said he worked there.
Present Continuous: «I am working.»	Past Continuous: She said she was working.
Past Simple: «I went there.»	Past Perfect: He said he had gone there.
Present Perfect: «I have finished.»	Past Perfect: She said she had finished.
will: «I will call.»	would: He said he would call.
today / yesterday / tomorrow	that day / the day before / the day after

In reported speech, verbs shift back one tense. Say takes no object. Tell always takes an object (tell me, tell him). Reported questions use normal word order (subject + verb) with if for yes/no questions.